Ambebkar's Conversion to Buddhism:
Factors and after Effect
Dr. Arun Kumar Sinha
Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies,
Sarnath, Varanasi
Dr.
Bhimrao, Ramji Ambedkar (1891-1956) was one of the leading personalities of our
modern India. A great social reformer, undisputed champion of the untouchables
and their cause, a great constitutionalist, a keen thinker and a versatile
orator, Ambedkar symbolized a unique phenomenon in the political and social
arena of modern India. He is chiefly known for his twin works-the unrelentless
struggle for the dignity and upliftment of the untouchables of India against
the strongly entrenched hierarchial Hindu caste system and as an architect of
our Indian constitution. Born in the Mahar caste, an untouchable community of
Maharastra, he received the highest education undreamt of by any untouchable
caste person of his age. His life, works and Ideas were shaped by personalities
like Kabir, Jyotiba Phooley and the Buddha, his ascribed status as an
untouchable and lastly the Liberal-Democratic ideas, ideologies and
institutions of the west.[1] The cause dearest to his heart,
which consumed his whole life was the upliftment of the untouchables and
depressed classes of India. His vision of uplifting their position was not
limited only to their social respect and material aspect alone but aspired to
make them a perfect human being in every sense. Ambedkar for this, laid more
stress on social democracy than political democracy and in this debate between
him and the congress leaders he gave priority to the former whereas congress
thought the opposite. For Ambedkar social democracy was a prerequiste for a
stable political system. Ambedkar was critical of Gandhi and Congress leaders
soft approach towards the upliftment of untouchables which just labelled them
as 'Harijan' within the Hindu fold and argued that political democracy and
consciousness would automatically Improve condition of Harijans in Indian
society. Being, himself the conscious and educated member of the untouchable
community he was more aware of their plight and hence his straight forward
approach at times smacked of aggressiveness and casteism. Ambedkar's works and
approach to uplift the condition of untouchables in India and especially the
Mahars of Maharastra and ultimately their conversion to Buddhism can be seen in
four phases.
The
first phase of Ambedkar's struggle (1919-1929) was to create an opening for the
untouchables within the Hindu fold by trying to smash the bastion of caste and
Its religion by trying to gain access to public places and utilities where the
untouchables were discriminated. The second phase (1929-35) was of soul
searching and mentally preparing to leave the Hindu fold and convert to some
other religion. Although he gave such indication in May 1929 at Jalgaon yet at
the conference of Depressed Classes on 13th Oct. 1935 he made a positive
statement with the historic declaration that circumstances beyond his control
had placed him in the untouchable community but he would certainly not die as a
Hindu for sure.[3] The third phase (1935-50) was of securing
political rights and advocating the cause of untouchables at various political
forms and commissions. He was deeply involved in securing political, social and
economic rights for the scheduled castes which finally led to various
provisions In the drafting of the Indian constitution. The conversion question
remained suspended and education as means of upliftment was given preference.
On the whole it was a phase when forces of modemizaton and securing rights
gained prime place. The Fourth phase (1950-56) saw the reawakening of the
conversion issue and finally conversion to Buddhism which he along with a large
number of untouchables did on the 14th Oct. 1956 about two months before his
death on the 6th Dec. 1956.
A
lot has been written and published on the historic event of Dr. Ambedkar and
his followers conversion to Buddhsm and its impact.[4] This
year (1991) being his Birth Centenary Year such exercise has proliferated and
gained importance. This article is about why Ambedkar took so long time to
decide to convert, the various inherent factors involved in it and its after
effects.
Dr.
Ambedkar decided to leave the Hindu fold and convert to some other religion in
1935 but actually did it in 1956 which seems as a long drawn process stretched
over two decades. The resolution made it clear that he was adamant to leave the
Hindu fold but to which religion was undecided. Various factors and their
impact were evaluated by him. The options open for religious conversion to
Ambedkar were Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism or a new sect of his own.
The conversion to any religion had to have a mass base and suited to the
present and future needs of the untouchables, and especially his own caste, the
Mahars. The bases of evaluation of the prospective religion were:
"absolute equality, rationalism and Intellectual creativity, the
possibility of converts continuing their newly won special privileges from the
government as Depressed Classes, a connection with a militant group which could
offer protection but allow them to. retain their own leadership and direction,
a birth place In India and position of respect there."[5]Ambedkar's
resolution made various religious leaders to woo him and his followers towards
their own religion, but no current religion met all his demands. Religious
conversion to Christianity and Islam involved greater risk to his caste unity
and would have made the whole exercise less successful. Although preaching
equality, love, fraternity and humanity In principle, Islam till then had
showed undue militancy on national scene and also somewhat heirarchial
discrimination in their community life. Christianity also showed class and rank
strife and case of discrimination like the Hindu fold. Further, being a
nationalist to the core of his heart conversion to Islam and Christianity for
Ambedkar, would have meant denationalization of the scheduled caste people and
contrary to national interest.[6] It would have thrown them on
the wrong side of the national politics with more risk to face and less gan to
be achieved. Ambedkar considered converting to Sikhism for a time being because
it met most of his demands but at the same time he felt a certain amount of
responsibility for the fate of Hindus whom he was deserting.[7] But
this involved the risk of forgoing the privileges accorded to untouchables in
reserved Parliamentary seats and special concessions granted by the British
government.[8] Ambedkar was much inclined towards Buddhism to
which he was exposed since 1920's but had to face the same risk of losing the
political concessions. At the same time despite its revival on intellectual
plane it was not considered as a vital established religion compared to other
religions.[9]
After
the announcement to desert the Hindu religion in 1935, Ambedkar forbade his
followers to worship Hindu deities and observe their ceremonies and festivals.
It is difficult to document the effect of the conversion announcement on the
religious life of the Mahars. But after the period of 1935 to 1956 there was no
group effort to demand religious rights of any sort and seek social mobility
through Sanskritisaton. At some places Ambedkar's followers threw away Hindu
deities and stopped observing rituals and ceremonies, but in the rural areas
more or less they carried on their religious practices. It was not a period of
religious suspension for Ambedkar's followers. Being aware that the religion
would suddenly not change their socio-economic position of the schedule castes
it served two purposes. On one hand it was a threat to the dominant Hindu fold
to reform and recognize the Depressed Classes by making radical structural and
psychological changes. On the other hand it consolidated the caste unity
through cornmoness of cause. The newly awakened class unity as depressed
section of Indian society and related consciousness, prepared them for a search
of new identity. Ambedkar in the period between 19351950 laid more stress on
forces of modernization as a means of social mobility. Securing more and more
political rights and concessions for the Depressed Classes by vigorously
representing their cause to various political forums was adopted. He stressed
the fact to the British government that Depressed classes were separate entity
from the Hindu fold and to the recalcitrant Congress party dominated by upper
caste Hindu leaders to take concrete steps in uplifting the Depressed Classes
as equals. On his own caste front he asked his followers to abandon the
demeaning traditional jobs, organise and educate themselves and move to urban
centres. He also asked them to change their way of life and attitude.
Ambedkar's all efforts of social mobility of the Depressed Classes were
directed to political and legal changes as well as education. Anyone with a
little knowledge of this turbulent phase of modem Indian politics would
appreciate Ambedkar's foresightedness. Brushing aside the approach of Congress
and Gandhi towards the Depressed Classes being mild and nominal, his forthright
approach put the depressed classes as a living entity on the political map of
India and a force to reckon with. Ambedkar formed a number of political, social
and educational institutions for the upliftment of the Depressed Classes.[10] At
the same time he wrote extensively on Hindu caste system, the untouchables and
approach of his contemporaries towards their problems and on national issues
Congress party by projecting Jagjiwan Ram as the leader of the untouchables
tried to counter his Influence in the northern part with success but could not
check the spreading consciousness of the Depressed Classes for a better place
in Indian society. Drafting and adoption of the various provisions in the
Indian constitution for safeguarding the interest of the Depressed Classes was
his crowning glory and the concrete manifestation of his whole life's struggle.[11] The
other major victory in this area was 'The untouchability (Offences) Act 195X,
though his one important effort to restructure the Indian society 'The Hindu
Code Bills" in 1951 was mauled and he resigned from Parliament in protest.
It
seems a little strange that after successfully experimenting and accepting
modernization as the most potent vehicle of social mobility for the Schedule
Castes along with legal measures and political concessions, Ambedkar sought conversion
after two decades to Buddhism which he had postponed earlier. We can enumerate
some of the factors responsible for this phenomenon. Firstly, Ambedkar himself
was a religious person to the core of his heart. He considered morality as the
new god, the binding and moving force of society and human beings. His vision
of human beings and society comprised of religions and morality minus It's
ritualism and superstition. Secondly, "he knew that the untouchables were
deeply religious people whose spritual hunger had to be satisfied only by
offering them an alternate system of religious precepts, values and rituals if
they were not to be transformed into a rootless mass."[12] Thirdly,
his vision of progress of human beings and especially the untouchables was not
just calculated In terms of economic advancement, social equality or political
bargain but a complete development of heart and mind to the fullest possible
extent. Fourthly, he desired a separate identity[13] for the
Depressed Classes in modem Indian society so that with the passage of time they
would not relapse into the same hierarchial Hindu fold and bear its scaffold.
This would negate the achievements in socio-economic terms and again pushed
them back in the social order. Ambedkaes motive behind the conversion was to
put the final seal of approval of a separate identity for the untouchables,
encircled by Hindu society. Fifthly, conversion was not to sever but to realign
the untouchable community with the changing social equation and the mainstream
of Indian culture and national life. Sixthly, besides socio-economic
advancement it was a step to remove the centuries old inferiority complex
embeded in the untouchables and a great psychological boost. Seventhly, with
the socioeconomic advancement Ambedkar did not want his followers to be lost in
the maze of materialism and its leading ideologies like marxism which were
gaining ground and he despised those Ideas. Eightly, conversion was a move to
mitigate and to remove the sub-caste barriers of the untouchable community and
bind them in a single large homogenous and endogamous group to make them
strong.[14]
Since
1950 Ambedkar revived his efforts for conversion with a new vigour and
converted to Buddhism along with his followers on 15th Oct. 1956. In the
changed scenario Buddhism met most of the criteria needed for religious
conversion as noted above.[15]Ambedkar's own preparation for
conversion to Buddhism had begun in the 1920's or even before that.[16] In
early 1930's naming his new home as Rajgriha reflects his early inclination
towards Buddhism. Study of Pali and Buddhism at Fergusson College, Poona,
Bombay and places in and around Maharastra by leading scholars and social
workers before independence possibly drew Ambedkar increasingly towards Buddhism.[17] At
the same time rediscovery of glorious history of Buddhism in Maharastra and ifs
Buddhist sites became more popular. The Ambedkar like the Buddha opposed the
Brahamanism and the caste-system and provided some rationale to his struggle in
the current age. "By turning to Buddhism the untouchables could exchange
their nameless and sorrowful past for a golden age of the Buddhist history
which could strengthen their pride in themselves as Buddhists and create for
them a new sense of identity and new destiny."[18] That's
why Ambedkar exploited the myth that untouchables were the descendants of the
erstwhile Nagas who were Buddhists in the past.[19] Buddhism
being within the mainstream of Indian cultural tradition had come to acquire
the greatest importance among the Indian intellectuals. This made conversion
moment less prone to the risk of a split. Buddha and his basic philosophy would
not have been too foreign to his followers. And Ambedkar and his followers made
conversion to Buddhism making it simply an act of reclaiming their own past.
The social message of an egalitarian society based on liberty, equality,
rationality, love for humanity and the strong moral teachings of Buddhism
appealed Ambedkar. Also it did not Inhibit the spirit and forces of modernization
and urbanism. In fact, "Buddhism became another means of modernization for
the lowliest of the low in India."[20] Independent India
became more aware of her Buddhist neighbours Ceylon, Burma and Thailand, and
started reclaiming Buddhism for mutual unity and friendship. After securing
political and legal rights for Schedule Castes in independent India a religion
with its root at home as well as branches in other countries suited more to
Ambedkar and his followers rather than a strong protective religion which by
that time had become an irrelevant factor.[21] Ambedkar drawn
towards Buddhism visited the Buddhist countries, attended conference and
meetings on Buddhism. Later he declared Buddhism to be the future religion of
mankind.[22] Buddhism was the meeting point of his social
Humanism, Democratic ideals, modemization and religious yearning.
Ambedkar
reiterated that conversion was not sought for material gains but was
exclusively a spiritual and religious quest. This seems partly true. In fact,
it was the fear of loss of hard won political privileges from the government
for the Depressed Classes which had earlier checked Ambedkar from embracing any
other religion. During conversion to Buddhism in 1956 being aware of this trap
Ambedkar took a calculated risk. He had emphatically assured his followers to
trust him that privileges and concession lost due to conversion to Buddhism by
the Scheduled Caste people would soon be regained.[23] He was
now on surer ground and rather confident of the potential and strength of his
movement. For him It was a matter of time rather than of strength. Although he
did not live long to see the recovery of the lost grounds yet his home state
Maharastra extended this privilege to the Buddhists after six years [24] and
the Government of India after more than two decades in Sept, 1980.[25] Besides
other factors fear of loss of privileges and concessions may be accounted as a
inhibiting factor for schedule castes from other regions joining the conversion
movement. It was dominated by the Mahar community and the Jata's of Agra were
the second largest community. Ambedkar was apprehensive of this fact but even
then the religious conversion became a historic event.
Even
after three decades there is a conflict of opinion regarding the success and
nature of Ambedkar's Buddhist conversion movement. But majority of the scholars
agree that the "rationale for conversion was psychological and the
benefits have been (largely) psychological."[26] The
neo-Buddhists have shed their inferiority complex, acquire a new consciousness
and cultural identity. But the socio-economic position of the majority of the
neo-Buddhist remains more or less the same. For the Mahars of Maharastra
residing in rural areas they simply seem to have exchanged one label for the
another. They are now taken to be .1 untouchable Buddhist."[27] After
Ambedkar's demise in 1956 the "new Buddhist community was left without
leadership, intellectual as well as political, and soon the neo-Buddhist tended
to become another untouchable caste especially in rural areas of Maharastra.
Buddhism had come and gone like a mighty hurricane that swept thousands off
their feet only to deposit them, in a manner of speakIng, a few yards away on
the same level."[28] Buddhist revival movement in Maharastra
has definitely lost vitality and vigour. The major problem affecting this is
poverty, lack of leadership from the Bhikkhus as wen as lay community or lack
of strong religious cadre with vision and missionary zeal, lack of books in
vernacular language and political fragmentation.[29]
The
other manifestation of conversion in Maharastra has been the recurrent violence
eruptIng In anti-untouchable, anti-Buddhist between the neo-Buddhists and the
dominant Marathas.[30] But the scenario of condition of Buddhists
Is not all that bleak and signs of Buddhist life can be clearly perceived.[31] A
lot is being done by the People's Education Society (1945), Republican Party
(1956) and the Buddhist Society of India (1953), all the three founded by
Ambedkar and the Aft India Buddhist Dhamma Summit Convention (1975).[32]
The
current year is declared as the Birth Centenary year of Dr. Ambedkar by the
Government. A number of programmes have been announced by the government and
various voluntary Organisation have been limited to honoring him and his Ideals
through Intellectual exercises. It would be better If a target oriented time
bound socio-economic programme would have been launched to alleviate the status
of masses and schedule castes. Besides overcoming other handicaps the only
effective way of improving the lot of Schedule Castes and Depressed is through
the process of modernization. This does not mean the deprivation of their
religious identity but since poverty is their main problem, modernization seems
to be the panacea. Making Ambedkar's dream of propagation and revival of
Buddhism in India a concrete reality requires a great effort and lot of guts of
the Buddhists.
REFERENCES
[1] B.
G. Gokhale, "Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambabker: Rebel against Hindu
Tradition," B. L. Smith (ed.) Religion and Social Conflict in
South Asia, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 197 6, p. 17. Dr. D. L. Ramteke, Revival
of Buddhism in Modern India, New Delhi, 1983, p. 94.
[2] Gokhale.
op. cit., p. 15.
[3] Dhananjay
Keer, Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission, Bombay, 1962, pp. 252-52.
[4] Dr.
D. L Ramteke, op. cit., chapter VI. Gokhale, op. cit. Prof. Sanghasen Singh
(ed.)Ambedkar on Buddhist Conversion and Its Imfact, Delhi. 1990. D. C.
Ahir, Buddhism in Modern India, Nagpur, 1972, Buddhism and
Ambedkar, Delhi, 1968.
[5] Eleenor
Zelliot. "The Psychological Dimension of the Buddhist Movement in
India," G. A. Oddie (ed.), Religion in South Asia, New Delhi,
1977. p. 126.
[6] Ramteke,
op. cit. p. 127.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Zelliot,
op. cit. p. 126.
[9] Ibid.,
p. 126, 132 In. 16.
[10] Ramteke,
op. cit. chapter VIII.
[11] Ibid.
pp. 154-55.
[12] Gokhale,
op. cit., p. 2 1.
[13] Bradwell
L. Smith, "Religion, Social Change and the Problem of Identity in South
Asia: An Interpretative Introduction," same (ed.) Religion... op. cit.. p,
2, 4, 5, 12, Zelliot op. cit. p. 131.
[14] Gokhake,
op. cit., p. 2 1.
[15] Zelliot,
op. cit. p. 129.
[16] Ibid.
p. 132.
[17] Eleanor
Zelliot, "The Indian Rediscovery of Buddhism," 1855-1956, A. K.
Narain (ed.), Studies in Pali and Buddhism, New Delhi, 1979, pp.
396-98.
[18] Gokhale,
op. cit., p. 2 1. (not exploited but explained -E. B.)
[19] Zelliot, The
Psychological.. , op. cit., p. 131.
[20] Gokhale
op. cit., p. 22.
[21] Zelliot, The
Psychological. op. cit., p. 130.
[22] Ambedkar, Buddha
and the Future of His Religion, Mahabodhi, Vaishakha Purnima issue, 1950.
[23] Chandra
Bhardi, Social and Political Ideas of B. R. Ambedkar, Jaipur, 1977,
pp. 254-55.
[24] Zelliot, The
Psychological.. op. cit., p. 130.
[25] Times
of India, 29th Sept., 1980
[26] Zelliot,
op. cit., pp. 137-139. Arun Sadhu, 'Neo-Buddhists in Maharastra Conversion has
Helped", Times of India, 15th Nov., 1975. V. V. Date, Times
of India, 1st Oct., 198 1.
[27] Eleanor
Zelliot, "The Revival of Buddhism in India", Aria : A Journal published
by Asia Society (New York) No. 1 Winter, 1968, pp. 33-45, esp., p. 45 (may be
in the eyes of the Hindus - E.B.)
[28] B.
G. Gokhale, Buddhism in Maharastra: A History, Bombay, 1976, p.
158.
[29] Zelliot, The
Psychological.. op. cit., pp. 134-35. Rarnteke, op. cit., p. 219.
[30] Economic
and Political weekly, Vol. XIII, No. 8 (5 May, 1973), and also of 13th July,
1974. Eleanor Zelliot, An Historical View of theMaharastrian
Intellectual and Social Change, Y. K. Malik(ed.), South Asian
Intellectuals and Social Change, New Delhi, 1982, p. 88.
[31] Zelliot, The
Psychological.. op. cit., pp., 135-37.
[32] Ibid,
p, 143, fn. 35, Ramteke, op. cit., 212-227.
***
[Originally
published in Maha Bodhi Society Centenary Celebrations, Buddhagaya
Centre, 1891-1991, Souvenir, Sambodhi No. 2,
vol. 2 (1991), pp. 73-79]
***
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