RIDERS TO THE SEA

Riders to the sea is an amazing play by John Millington Synge. It is a modern tragedy in one act. The play narrates the calamities inflicted by the sea on a family that lived in Aran Islands.

The play begins with the conversation between the two Sisters Cathleen and Nora. Cathleen is a girl about twenty. They talk about their brother Michael who was drowned in the sea. In order to hide his death from Maurya their old mother, they kept his clothes in the turf loft.

The next son Bartley wanted to go to Connemara. His mother requested him not to go as she had already last her son in the sea. She said.

          " what is the price of a  thousand horses against the son where there  

           is one son only?"

but he didn't give need to his mothers words. He rode on a red mare to catch the boat waiting near the sea. Maurya uttered some bad words on his departure.

Cathleen scolded her mother for that. Then she sent her with the bread to give him a blessing. While their mother went out, the sisters unwrapped the bundle in the loft. They were very sure that the clothes belong to Michael.

Meanwhile Maurya returned back home with a strange story. She saw Bartley in a red mare followed by Michael in a grey pony. She felt sorry for having lost all her six sons, her husband and her husband's father in the sea. Suddenly Cathleen and Nora notice a woman entering their house with a sad face. After her some men brought the dead body of Bartley. The broken mother sat by the side of his dead son and prayed for his soul.

           Thus the play ends on a tragic note of gentle submission to the role of fate.

The Age of Dryden

The Restoration brought about an immense change in the general temper of the English people. Infidelity became fashionable. The moral ideas of Puritanism were turned into jest. With the Restoration we enter upon a period in which literature intellectual rather than imaginative. Literature of this period was influenced by France. Edmund Waller and Sir John Denham were pioneers in the classic school of poetry. They were the reformers of English versification.

Dryden's life. John Dryden was born in 1631, the death of Oliver Cromwell" and "Astrea Redux",in celebration of happy restoration of Charles Il. In 1670 he was made poet laureate. In 1681, he published his great satire in verse, "Absalom and Achitophel" He produced 5 plays — Juvenal, Persius, Vergil and a volume of Fables. He died in May, 1700.

 Dryden's Poetry: Dryden's poetry is dealt with under three heads:

( 1 ) The political satires: "Absalam and Achitophel" was written to defend King's policy against the Earl of Shaftesbury , Shaftsbury under the name or Achitophel and the Duke of Buckingham under that of Zimri. "The Medal" was also written against Shaftesbury and "Macflecknoe" is the personal attack on his former friend Thomas Shadwell

 (2) The two great doctrinal poems, 'Religious Laici" and ' 'The Hind and the Panter" are in strict sense religious, They exhibit Dryden's master in verse.

 (3) The Fables: The fine tales written by the end of his last years give him a little to rank among the best story tellers in verse. "The Palamon and Arcite", based upon the Knightes Tale of Chaucer is a comparison between method and art of the 14th century.

Dryden's poetry is the representative of the age. It is characterized by splendid intellectuality."Absalom and Achitophel" and 'Religo Laide" are Dryden's masterpieces. It was Dryden who made the classic couplet as the accepted measure of serious English poetry.

Butler: Samuel Butler (1612-1680) is the author of the famous "Hudibras". It is a satire on puritans. The machinery of the poem is fashioned upon "Don Quixote". Butler shows us two contrasted representatives of Puritanism — the Presbyterian Sir Hudibras and his attendant, Ralpho who assumes the most of virtue. It was Butler's intention to kill puritanism by ridicule. It was the favourite reading of Charles II.

The Age of Dryden

Prose and the Drama

 The Rise of Modern Prose. "The Restoration" marks the real moment of birth of our modern English prose. In the new prose, the sentences are much shorter and simpler. The parentheses and classical inversions are cleared away. The influence of Science encouraged clearness of thought and plainness of expression.

Dryden's Prose Work: Dryden's prose writings consist mainly of essays and prefaces. Dryden is not only the first great modern prose writer but also our first great modern critic. In his "Essay of Dramatic Poesy", Dryden deals with the principles and merits of three chief types of drama - the classical drama of the Greeks and Romans, the neo-classical drama of the French, and the romantic drama of the English. Dryden often writes hastily but his sagacity and penetration are remarkable. His prose style is characterized by clearness and vigour.

 Bunyan: John Bunyan was born at Elstow, Bedfordshire. His autobiography "Grace Abounding" was the work of his captivity. The first part of "The Pilgrim's Progress" belongs to a second imprisonment of six months in 1675. He died in London He was buried in the Old Dissenters' Burial Ground at Bunhill Fields. His four great works are "Grace Abounding", "The Pilgrim's Progress", "The Life and Death of Mr.Badman" and "The Holy War". He succeeded in writing a long prose allegory. The combined vividness and plainness of his writing is another remarkable feature of his work. Bunyan was not an educated man. But he had the Authorised version of the English Bible by heart. Like Milton, Bunyan was also the child of puritanism. The narrative method, allegorical characters and the dialogue of "The Pilgrim's Progress" make it a forerunner of the novel.

Other Prose Writers of the period;

John Tilloston (1630-94) — established new prose.

John Locke — Essay on the Human Understanding,  "Treatise on Thoughts on Education"

John Evelyn: Diary is a record of contemporary events.

Samuel Pepys — Diary covers a period of 10 years — from I st January, 1660 to 31 May, 1669 - important events are the Restoration, the Great Plague and the Great Fire vivid descriptions of men and manners of the day.

The Drama of the Age of Dryden: William Wycherley, William Congreve - greatest masters of artificial comedy. Rev.Jeremy Collier - Short view of the Profanes and Immortality of the English Stage. Gallantry and courage were depicted. 'Heroic Drama" was a popular form in which love, gallantry and courage were depicted. Dryden was the principal master of blank verse. "The Tyrannic Love","The Royal Martye" and "The Mourning Bride" are faithfully modeled on the regular classic model. "All for Love" is based on "Antony and Cleopatra" 

The Age of Milton (1625 - 1660)

The Age of Milton. The principal feature of the age of Milton is the growth of Puritanism as a moral and social force. The descendants of Wyclif and Lollards advocated very strict views concerning life and conduct and were called Puritans. During the reign of James I, Puritanism emerged as a great national power. After the civil war, it triumphed with the triumph of Oliver Cromwell. The Influence of Puritanism upon the English life and thought was profound. The moral and religious influences of Puritanism are combined with the spirit of Renaissance.

Milton's Life: John Milton was born in Bread Street, Cheapside, London, on 9th December, 1608. He was educated at St. Paul's School and at Christ's College, Cambridge. His books had kept him out of bed till midnight. He had shown untiring devotion to learning. Milton thus became a very great scholar. His "Paradise Lost" was published in 1667. Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes in 1671. Milton died on 8th November 1674.

Milton's works fall into 4 periods: (l) the College period, closing with the end of the Cambridge Career on 1632, (2) the Horton period. closing with his departure for the Continent in 1638, (3) the period of his prose writings, from 1640 to 1660 and 4) the late poetic period, or period of his greatest achievement. In 'Lycidas' Milton mourns the late death of his college friend Edward King. It is a pastoral Elegy.

Milton's Poetry: In "Paradise Lost", Milton produced the greatest English poem. In this masterpiece, he revealed his intellectual energy and creative power. The inspiration and the subject matter of the poem come from Milton's Puritanism insists on Eternal Providence and justify the ways of God to men. In "Paradise Lost", Milton setforth the revolt of Satan against God, the war in heaven, the fall of the rebel angels, the creation of the world and man, the temptation of Eve and Adam, and their expulsion from Eden. He introduces the divine work of redemption. The dramatic poem, "Samson Agonistes" crown the labours of his closing years. In "Paradise Lost'", Milton applies the principles of Greek tragedy.

Characteristics of Milton's Poetry: After Shakespeare, Milton is the greatest English poet. In him, we have a wonderful union of intellectual power and creative power. He is the most sublime of English poets. In grand style, majesty of thought and diction, he is unrivalled. His descriptive power is excellent. In the opening books of 'Paradise Lost", the debate in the council of the fallen angels shows Milton's extraordinary insight into motive and character. There is an intensity of individuality throughout the poem. In the technical side of his poetry, his great beauty of style and versification are noteworthy. Milton remains our greatest master.

The Age of Milton

Other poets and prose writers

 The Caroline Poets: Under the term "Caroline Poets" we can include a number of verse writers in the reign of Charles l. Some of them were secular poets and some of them were religious.

 Robert Herrick: The most important of Caroline Poets is Robert Herrick. He was deprived of this wealth during civil war hit later reinstated at the Restoration. His religious poetry was published under the title "Noble Numbers" and his secular poems under "Hesperides" . His power of writing poetry was shown at their best in "Hesperides'. It comprises fairy poems, occasional poems and love poems. They are delightful in their lyrical charm and grace. He detached himself from the political interests of the hour preferred to sing of the joys of life.

Thomas Carew, his friend Sir John Suckling and Richard Lovelace are poets of the lighter vein. Carew's "He that Loves a Rosy Cheek", Suckling's ' "Why so pale and wan fond lover?" and Lovelace's "To Althea from Prison" show their skill in verse-composition. Andrew Marvell's works exhibit many of the characteristics of the Cavalier School. After the Restoration period, he changed his poetic note and wrote satire on Charles II. Of the Caroline Poets, the most widely known poet was George Herbert. His lyrics are known as "The Temple". Henry Vaughan is deeper in thought and a mystic poet. Francis Quarles' "The Religious Emblems" had engravings and it had long-enduring popularity.

Cowley and the Metaphysical Poets: Abraham Cowley was considered the greatest of English poets. The name "metaphysical" was coined by Johnson. The metaphysical poets were men of learning. They neither copied nature nor life. Their thoughts are new. Their work is full of affectations, conceits, far-fetched similes etc. Johnson says that metaphysical poetry is a "voluntary deviation from nature in pursuit of something new and strange". Thomas Traherne was recognized as one of the greatest religious and metaphysical poets of the 17 century. His prose work "Centuries of Meditations" has profound thought and spiritual feeling.

 The Caroline Prose Writers: In prose, literature of Milton age, Jeremy Taylor's 'Holy Living and Holy Dying" and Richard Baxter's "The Saints' Everlasting Rest" are important works. Thomas Fuller wrote "Worthies of England", Izaak Walton's "The Contemplative Man's Recreation" is an instruction for fisher men in a gossipy style. Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon wrote "History of the Great Rebellion". Thomas Hobbes wrote "Leviathan".

Robinson Crusoe as a religious allegory.

Robinson Crusoe is a story of suspense, action and adventure. It is not only about the outward voyage over the sea. It is also an inner voyage like that of Bunyan's 'The Pilgrims Progress' in which the hero moves towards God. Robinson Crusoe is a religious allegory. It is an adventure in which Robinson explores himself and God. When Robinson finds himself a prisoner

                  

                           Locked up with the eternal bars and blots of the ocean, is an . . .             

                           uninhabited wilderness.

He seeks God and converses with him. Robinson Crusoe is the puritan drama of the soul.

Robinson speaks of God's blessing when leaving for London. He resolves not to set his foot on the ship if it would please God  to spare his life. When his life on the ship is in danger he prays, "Lord, be merciful to us." The captain and the crew are at their prayers. When the ship is stranded but somehow Robinson reaches the shore, he address to God in thankfulness:

                   

                          Lord! how was it possible I could get on shore.

            The novel has God on almost every page. Robinson finds himself alone on the desolate island. When he sees a foot print, he loses faith in the mercy of God. His fear banishes all his religious hope. When he sees the cannibals feasting upon the human flesh, he is filled with horror. He says, "Lord have mercy upon me".

When all goes well Robinson prays to God, praises Him and thanks Him but when he feels afflicted, he protests to God. He is thus, like Milton, a blend of Puritanism and Renaissance. Like a puritan, he wants to justify the ways of God, and assert eternal providence(God). 

As the novel is full of religious and spiritual ideas, mystery is expressed through prophecy, dreams and the mysterious footprint. There is the first prophecy of Robinson's father that if he takes the foolish step of going to sea, God will not bless him. This prophecy comes true. Robinson's own dream of fighting with the cannibals and saving the life of one savage who becomes his slave, comes true. We have in the novel God, providence, prophecy, dream and the footprint. These make the novel religious, mysterious  and spiritual. Defoe had puritan learning from his childhood. He had religion in his blood. So Robinson Crusoe is considered as a religious allegory.

Character of Friday

Friday is a cannibal. The name Friday is given to this cannibal by Robinson who rescues him from the bloody hands of his enemy cannibals. Robinson teaches him many things like speaking  "Yes " no" " master", and pray to God to bless him". Soon Friday becomes a Christian and a devoted servant of Robinson. After the release from the imprisonment of the island, he accompanies his master, and passes the rest of his life with him. He is about 26 years. He has all the sweetness and softness of a European in his face. He possesses several qualities like swiftness, boldness, intelligence, affection, patriotism, simplicity and innocence.

 Along with ingenuity, he possesses dexterity. Robinson praises this quality in the following line:

                         

                                "Friday took his aim so much better than I that he killed . . .         

                                 two of them and wounded three more."

He does not possess only the sense of humour, he is also the cause of humour. Robinson simply shoots a kid under a tree but Friday fears that he is hurt. When Robinson kills a parrot with the gun, Friday is so much afraid of the gun that he almost worships it. He does not touch it for several days . He shows his boldness in his encounter with rival cannibals, in the encounter with the seamen  and then on the mountain in his encounter with the bear and the ferocious wolves. He can work hard. He beats the corn and swifts. He does all other things on the island. What is most remarkable for him is his love, which is affectionate for his father, patriotism for his country as service for his master.

He bears deep love for his country. When he sees his motherland from the hill, he becomes happy:

                       

                                   " o joy! says he, o glad! There are my country, there my nation.

          He bears intense love for his father, when he sees his father, who was t be killed and eaten the rival cannibals, he feels happy. He runs wildly to bring water and food for him. Friday loves Robinson for saving his life. He expresses his gratitude to him. What we value most Friday is his simplicity. Above all he is innocent. When Robinson kills a kid, Friday rips up his waistcoat to feel if he is not wounded. Simple, honest and innocent are the qualities of Friday. He is open- hearted. There is no guile about him. Robinson says:

         

                                     "He told me all he knew with the greatest openness imaginable."

Character of Robinson Crusoe

Robinson Crusoe is a restless wanderer. He is a portrait of Defoe  himself. The novel is popular because of Robinson. He is a rich and complex character. He suffers from sea fever. We find the spirit of his wandering inclination in the following line.

                   

                                       All these miscarriages were procured by my apparent obstinate                                                    adhering to my foolish inclination of wandering abroad.

            
        His wandering thirst is not quenched even at the fag end of his life inspite of the horrifying dangers on the sea and the loneliness of the island.

             Robinson expresses feeling of guilt and repentance for his wrong resolutions.

                     

                                     "I resolved not to think of going abroad anymore but to settle 

                                     at home according to my father's desire. But Alas! a few dats  

                                     wore it off "

            He is a blend of spiritualism and materialism. On the one hand he prays to God and reads Bible and on the other hand he wishes for money. He become religious only in his later life.

           

           The novel is full of his money- matters, and his worldliness. While sailing for Guinea for the first time, he collects 40 pounds from his relatives and earn 260 pounds in Brazil. He wants to become a planter because he has seen planters flourishing . When he sees cannibals enjoying a feast in human flesh, he wants to kill them. Therefore he is a partisan. He is a coward. He feels frightened to death during ship wreaks and storms. One of his chief virtues is his ingenuity.

Loneliness on the solitary island causes tears in his eyes. He knows that he is in the hands of cruel forces of nature. Robinson is an expert planner of strategy. He shows his ingenuity in planning release from slavery in Salley. He is able to protect and preserve himself because he doesn't loose the presence of his mind. It is evident in the encounter with the cannibals. He is religious too. When he is imprisoned in the lonely island for 28 years, he turns religious. He thanks God for saving his life. He reads the Bible regularly. He makes Friday religious. Robinson is generous. He helps the poor widow and gives her 100 pounds. He sends her one hundred pounds to comfort her in her poverty and promises to give her more. He helps his two sisters by sending them 100 pounds each. He praises his partner for his industry and helps him. He returns 872 moidores to be distributed among the poor and the monastery. His besetting sin is only a flaw. His sin us that he robbed his parents of their deep love.

Robinson Crusoe - Plot construction

                                                                                          -Daniel Defoe

Plot construction of Robinson Crusoe

The plot structure of Robinson Crusoe is loosely constructed. It is episodic. It is not integrated. W.H.Hudson has observed about this novel, "No attempt was made towards the organization of the material into a systematic plot". The theme that runs throughout his words provides unity to them. It is the justification of the ways of God to men and the surety of eternal life. The novel 'Robinson Crusoe ' is also harmoniously bound by its theme.

The plot of 'Robinson_Crusoe ' is the theme of the Prodigal_Son . In the biblical parable we read that the son runs away with his share to a far-off country, spends it, starves , feels lone , returns to his father , repents for his sin and is forgiven by his father who asks his servant to kill a fatted calf so that they may eat and make merry. We have in 'Robinson Crusoe' sin , punishment, repentance and forgiveness. The father who forgives Robinson is God, the father of us all. Robinson commits several sins. He runs away without seeking the permission of his father and the blessing of God. In Brazil he commits the sin of satisfying the immoderate desire of rising faster than nature permits. On the island, in his venture of going around the island on the canoe, he runs away from imprisonment.

God first cautions him when his ship bound to London is tossed about by the waves of the sea. Robinson Crusoe promises to return home if God spares his life. But he commits the sin of breaking his promise and he is made slave. God the father does not kill him because he wants him to realize his sin and repent. He tortures him with loneliness. Robinson cries from the depth of his heart:

               

                O that there had been but one or two , nay, or

                but one soul saved out of this ship.

          God the father melts. He offers him first a savage Friday and then Friday's father and a Spaniard. The fearful dream does not allow him to sleep. He has evil conscience. 

Character of Cleopatra

Cleopatra is the heroine of the play. She is all for love and love absorbs her whole being. The love raises her above the position of a mistress. Ventidius wishes to separate Antony and Cleopatra, and is biased against her from the beginning. Alexas knows that Cleopatra cannot separate herself from her love for Antony. Though she is in danger, she doesn't allowed Octavious Caeser to make her his queen. It is love all transcending. She cannot forget that it was Alexas who froced her to play with Dolabella so that she might make Antony jealous.

               

                Ah what will not a woman do - who loves?

                What means will she refuse, to keep the heart.

                Where all her joys are placed?

It is an intimate self revelation and he prize it above everything else in the play. Cleopatra would have made a good and ideal wife to any sincere man who is capable of loving in return. She was appreciated by Charmion and Iras.

            Cleopatra sacrificed honour, fame and the dignity of her royal house for love. Love means everything to her. She lives and dies for love. Shakespeare's Cleopatra has woman's wit and woman's wills. Dryden's Cleopatra is not a complex character. Her passions are made of the finest part of pure love. Cleopatra is a supreme creation of Dryden. It is the triumph of his art. 

Character of Antony

Dryden chose Antony as the Hero of this Heroic play. In the preface he writes, "The death of Antony and Cleopatra is a subject which represents unlawful love". The story of Antony and Cleopatra was very popular with the dramatists of the time. Dryden's play is based on Shakespeare's  Antony and Cleopatra. Antony is a man of passions and he yields himself to the intoxication of love. Ventidius tries to inject into him a feeling for honour, but he cannot keep him at it long. Octavia brings him fair terms from her brother. Octavia says:

                          

                         I'll tell my brother we are- reconciled;

There appears a conflict in Antony. He feels like surrendering to Octavia. We feel pity for Octavia, but there is more pity for Cleopatra. Antony is filled with jealously. When he knows that Dolabella sent by him, was making love to her. The result is the final break off between Antony and Octavia. He resumes fighting with Octavious. Antony thinks that he has been betrayed by Cleopatra:

                         
                         Ungrateful Women!

                         Who followed me, but as the swallow- summer,

                         But now my winter comes, she spreads her wings,

                         And seeks the spring of Caesar.

Antony could not keep himself away from Cleopatra. The dialogue between Ventidius and Antony throws light on his character:

                           
                          Antony: I will not fight, there is - more work for war

                          Venti: Caesar  is at your gates.

                          Ant. Why, let him enter.

The theme of the Heroic play is contest between love and honour. The sentiment of honour in him seems to slumbering. It is awakened by Ventidius now and then. He is going to die to a Roman. He throws himself upon his sword but it misses his heart. Now a reconciliation is patched up between him and Cleopatra.

'All for Love" as a heroic tragedy.

The Heroic tragedy became very popular in the restoration age. It is about the passion of love between Antony and Cleopatra. The opening scene of 'All for Love' shows Antony's neglect of royal duties. Having suffered a defeat at Actium due to Cleopatra's fleeing from the battlefield, Antony has shut himself in the temple of Isis. He refuses to see anybody. He hates the very sight of Cleopatra. He says that he wants to live like a recluse in a forest.Ventidius tells him that he need not despairs. If he gives up Cleopatra, there are thousands still ready to follow him. Pressed by Ventidius, Antony agrees to withdraw from Cleopatra and launch another war against Octavious. Antony now swings from love to duty, from passion to reason. But this does not last long. He swings once again back to love . When Cleopatra appears before him and convinces him of her steadfast devotion to him. She says that she showered all her love on Antony.

Regarding her fleeting from Actium, she argues that she was affected by womanly fear of violence and bloodshed and not by any desire to please Octavious. Finally, she shows him Octavious letter, offering to make her Queen of Egypt if she betrays Antony. Cleopatra says that she has totally rejected Octavious' offer. Antony once again comes back to her. Love triumphs over duty . At the sight of his children clinging to him, he swings back to Octavia. When he hears that Cleopatra has committed suicide in order to prove her loyalty, Antony regards life without Cleopatra as worthless and stabs himself.

Thus love rises above the demands of duty at the end. Antony dies, kissing Cleopatra. After his death, Cleopatra could have lived with Octavious. But she called herself Antony's wife and dies along her husband. She commits suicide with the help of deadly Asps. Like Shakespeare, Dryden also uses a rhyming couplet to express the superiority and sublimity of the lovers.                      
                            And fame to late posterity shall tell                  
                            No lovers lived so great, or died so well

The machinery of ghost and portents, description of the flooding of the Nile, a whirlwind opening graves and letting out ghosts are the features of the tragedy. Dryden conforms to the pattern of the Heroic tragedy. Passion surmounts reason. Thus ' All for Love ' fulfils the requirements of a Heroic tragedy.